materials of construction
1. Stones
2. Bricks
3. Sand
4. Reinforcing steel
5. Cement
6. Plain cement concrete (PCC)
7. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
8. Prestressed concrete (PSC)
9. Precast concrete
types of reinforcing steel:
1. Mild steel
2. High Yield Strength Deformed bars (HYSD)/TOR steel and
3. High tensile steel.
Mild Steel
It contains carbon upto 0.23 to 0.25%. Higher value is permitted for bars of 20 mm and above
diameter. It is available in diameters of 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25 and 32 mm. Its yield strength is 250
N/mm 2 and young’s modulus 2 × 10 5 N/mm 2 . It was very commonly used reinforcement in
concrete. But nowadays TOR steel is replacing it. It is used as window bars, for grills and for
making steel gates.
HYSD Bars/TOR Steel
Two types of TOR steel bars are available. They are Fe-415 and Fe-500. The number associated
with the designation indicates the tensile strength of bar in N/mm 2 . These bars are provided with
ribs deformation on surface so that bond between concrete and steel improves. These bars are
available in diameters 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm. Nowadays these bars are replacing
mild steel bars as reinforcement since their strength in tension and bond is higher. These are also
used as wind bars.
High Tensile Bars
High tensile steel bars are made with 0.8 % carbon and 0.6 % manganese apart from small
percentages of silicon, sulphur and phosphorous. The process of making these wires involve cold
drawing and tempering. They are usually available in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mm diameters. They may be
bundled with number of them to form a strand.
These bars are having tensile strength as high as 1400 N/mm 2 to 1900 N/mm 2 . The young’s
modulus of steels is also same as that of mild steel.
High tensile bars are used as reinforcement in prestressed concrete.
Uses of plain cement concrete:
1. As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings and on walls below beams.
2. As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
3. As coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
4. For flagging the area around the buildings.
5. For making pavements.
6. For making tennis courts, basket ball courts etc.
Uses of R.C.C.
1. R.C.C. is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is expected. The
common structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are:
(a) Footing
(b) Columns
(c) Beams, lintels
(d) Chejjas, roof slabs
(e) Stairs.
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like:
(a) Water tanks
(b) Dams
(c) Silos, bunkers
3. They are used for the construction of
(a) Bridges
(b) Retaining walls
(c) Docks and harbours
(d) Under water structures
4. R.C.C. is used for building tall structures like
(a) Multistorey buildings
(b) Chimneys
(c) Towers.
5. R.C.C. is used for paving
(a) High ways
(b) City roads
(c) Airports.
6. R.C.C. is used in atomic plants to prevent radiation. For this purpose R.C.C. walls built
are as thick as 1.5 m to 2.0 m.
Prestressed concrete used for making structural elements.
1. Beams and girders.
2. Slabs and grid floors.
3. Pipes and tanks
4. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavements.
5. Shell and folded plate roofs.
Precast concrete is used for making structural elements:
1. Pipes and tanks
2. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavement
3. Lintel beams
4. Beams and girders
5. Building blocks
6. Wall panels
7. Manhole covers
smart materials are:
1. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)
2. Magnetostrictive Materials
3. Piezoelectric Materials
4. Electrostrictive Materials and
5. Electro-rheological Fluids.
recycling waste materials
1. Concrete Rubble
2. Crusher Dust
3. Fly Ash
4. Silica Fume
5. Spent Foundry Sand
6. Blast Furnace Slag
7. Red mud
8. Polythene
types of shallow foundations
1. Wall foundation
2. Foundation for Brick Pillars
3. Foundation for R.C.C. columns and
4. Foundation for steel columns
various R.C.C. footings classified into
(i) Isolated Footing
(ii) Combined Footing for two columns
(iii) Combined Footing for multiple columns.
types of footings
(i) Rectangular slab type
(ii) Trapezoidal slab type
(iii) Beam and slab type and
(iv) Strap or cantilever footings.
various loads:
1. Dead loads
2. Imposed loads
3. Wind loads
4. Snow loads
5. Earthquake loads
6. Special loads
Unit Weight of Common Building Materials
1. Brick Masonry 18.8kN/m 3
2. Stone Masonry 20.4 – 26.5kN/m 3
3. Plain cement concrete 24.0kN/m 3
4. Reinforced cement concrete 25.0 kN/m 3
5. Timber 5 to 8kN/m 3
6. Wooden floors hard wood 16mm thick 160 kN/m 3
28 mm thick 200 N/m 3
7. Terrazo paving 240 N/m 3
8. Country Tiles (single) including battens 700 N/m 3
9. Mangalore Tiles with battens 650 N/m 3
10. Mangalore tiles with flat tiles 785 N/m 3
11. A.C. Sheets 6 mm thick 170 N/m 3
12. A.C. Sheet 5 mm plain 110 N/m 3
The Recommended Load Combinations by National Building Codes
1. DL
2. DL + IL + EL
3. DL + IL
4. DL + IL + TL
5. DL + WL
6. DL + WL + TL
7. DL + EL
8. DL + EL + TL
9. DL + TL
10. DL + IL + WL + TL
11. DL + IL + WL
12. DL + IL + EL +TI
where DL = dead load
IL = imposed load
WL = wind load
EL = earthquake load
TL = temperature load.
types of composite constructions are used:
1. Stone slabs facing with brick masonry backing.
2. Dressed stone facing and brick masonry backing.
3. Brick facing with rubble stone masonry.
4. Tile facing and brick backing.
5. Brick facing and concrete backing.
6. Stone facing and concrete backing.
uses of GPS are in:
1. Marine navigation
2. Airborne aviation
3. Surveying of lands
4. Sports such as yatching and hiking.
5. Guiding automobile drivers to their destination.
The advantages of using GPS are
1. Can be used in day as well as in nights.
2. Intervisibility of station points on land not required.
3. Time required is much less.
4. Man power required is less.
5. High accuracy is achieved. GPS provides accuracies within a centimeter.
scale maps are classified as
(i) large if greater than 1 : 1000
(ii) intermediate if between 1 : 1000 to 1 : 10,000 and
(iii) small if more than 1 : 10,000.
Most commonly used projections are
(i) Cylindrical projection
(ii) Azimuthal projection, and
(iii) Conic projections.
advantage of digital mapping:
1. Map making is quick.
2. Scales of map can be easily changed and viewed.
3. Maps can be made as per users need by clubbing only required theme of data.
4. Updating the existing map with latest information is neat and easy.
5. Creating maps like 3-Dimension type is easy.
advantages of digital planimeters are
1. Choice of metric or English unit is available.
2. No need for calibration each time.
3. Digital display which is easy to read.
4. Automatic averaging, if used repeatedly to get more accurate results. (Hold buttons is to
be pressed after each reading is taken).
5. Zero setting by push button.
6. Higher accuracy.
7. Downloading the area measured to computers for further processing.
types of bench marks are commonly used :
(i) GTS benchmarks
(ii) Permanent benchmarks
(iii) Arbitrary benchmarks
(iv) Temporary benchmark
types of levelling:
1. Simple levelling
2. Differential levelling
3. Fly levelling
4. Profile levelling
5. Cross sectioning, and
6. Reciprocal levelling
GIS applications are
1. Layout of residential areas
2. Location of market, industrial, cultural centres and other utilities.
3. Roads
4. Rail routes
5. Land use of different crops
6. Drainage systems
7. Streams and river basins
8. Lakes
9. Dams and canals
10. Risk assessment
1. Stones
2. Bricks
3. Sand
4. Reinforcing steel
5. Cement
6. Plain cement concrete (PCC)
7. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
8. Prestressed concrete (PSC)
9. Precast concrete
types of reinforcing steel:
1. Mild steel
2. High Yield Strength Deformed bars (HYSD)/TOR steel and
3. High tensile steel.
Mild Steel
It contains carbon upto 0.23 to 0.25%. Higher value is permitted for bars of 20 mm and above
diameter. It is available in diameters of 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25 and 32 mm. Its yield strength is 250
N/mm 2 and young’s modulus 2 × 10 5 N/mm 2 . It was very commonly used reinforcement in
concrete. But nowadays TOR steel is replacing it. It is used as window bars, for grills and for
making steel gates.
HYSD Bars/TOR Steel
Two types of TOR steel bars are available. They are Fe-415 and Fe-500. The number associated
with the designation indicates the tensile strength of bar in N/mm 2 . These bars are provided with
ribs deformation on surface so that bond between concrete and steel improves. These bars are
available in diameters 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm. Nowadays these bars are replacing
mild steel bars as reinforcement since their strength in tension and bond is higher. These are also
used as wind bars.
High Tensile Bars
High tensile steel bars are made with 0.8 % carbon and 0.6 % manganese apart from small
percentages of silicon, sulphur and phosphorous. The process of making these wires involve cold
drawing and tempering. They are usually available in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mm diameters. They may be
bundled with number of them to form a strand.
These bars are having tensile strength as high as 1400 N/mm 2 to 1900 N/mm 2 . The young’s
modulus of steels is also same as that of mild steel.
High tensile bars are used as reinforcement in prestressed concrete.
Uses of plain cement concrete:
1. As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings and on walls below beams.
2. As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
3. As coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
4. For flagging the area around the buildings.
5. For making pavements.
6. For making tennis courts, basket ball courts etc.
Uses of R.C.C.
1. R.C.C. is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is expected. The
common structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are:
(a) Footing
(b) Columns
(c) Beams, lintels
(d) Chejjas, roof slabs
(e) Stairs.
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like:
(a) Water tanks
(b) Dams
(c) Silos, bunkers
3. They are used for the construction of
(a) Bridges
(b) Retaining walls
(c) Docks and harbours
(d) Under water structures
4. R.C.C. is used for building tall structures like
(a) Multistorey buildings
(b) Chimneys
(c) Towers.
5. R.C.C. is used for paving
(a) High ways
(b) City roads
(c) Airports.
6. R.C.C. is used in atomic plants to prevent radiation. For this purpose R.C.C. walls built
are as thick as 1.5 m to 2.0 m.
Prestressed concrete used for making structural elements.
1. Beams and girders.
2. Slabs and grid floors.
3. Pipes and tanks
4. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavements.
5. Shell and folded plate roofs.
Precast concrete is used for making structural elements:
1. Pipes and tanks
2. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavement
3. Lintel beams
4. Beams and girders
5. Building blocks
6. Wall panels
7. Manhole covers
smart materials are:
1. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)
2. Magnetostrictive Materials
3. Piezoelectric Materials
4. Electrostrictive Materials and
5. Electro-rheological Fluids.
recycling waste materials
1. Concrete Rubble
2. Crusher Dust
3. Fly Ash
4. Silica Fume
5. Spent Foundry Sand
6. Blast Furnace Slag
7. Red mud
8. Polythene
types of shallow foundations
1. Wall foundation
2. Foundation for Brick Pillars
3. Foundation for R.C.C. columns and
4. Foundation for steel columns
various R.C.C. footings classified into
(i) Isolated Footing
(ii) Combined Footing for two columns
(iii) Combined Footing for multiple columns.
types of footings
(i) Rectangular slab type
(ii) Trapezoidal slab type
(iii) Beam and slab type and
(iv) Strap or cantilever footings.
various loads:
1. Dead loads
2. Imposed loads
3. Wind loads
4. Snow loads
5. Earthquake loads
6. Special loads
Unit Weight of Common Building Materials
1. Brick Masonry 18.8kN/m 3
2. Stone Masonry 20.4 – 26.5kN/m 3
3. Plain cement concrete 24.0kN/m 3
4. Reinforced cement concrete 25.0 kN/m 3
5. Timber 5 to 8kN/m 3
6. Wooden floors hard wood 16mm thick 160 kN/m 3
28 mm thick 200 N/m 3
7. Terrazo paving 240 N/m 3
8. Country Tiles (single) including battens 700 N/m 3
9. Mangalore Tiles with battens 650 N/m 3
10. Mangalore tiles with flat tiles 785 N/m 3
11. A.C. Sheets 6 mm thick 170 N/m 3
12. A.C. Sheet 5 mm plain 110 N/m 3
The Recommended Load Combinations by National Building Codes
1. DL
2. DL + IL + EL
3. DL + IL
4. DL + IL + TL
5. DL + WL
6. DL + WL + TL
7. DL + EL
8. DL + EL + TL
9. DL + TL
10. DL + IL + WL + TL
11. DL + IL + WL
12. DL + IL + EL +TI
where DL = dead load
IL = imposed load
WL = wind load
EL = earthquake load
TL = temperature load.
types of composite constructions are used:
1. Stone slabs facing with brick masonry backing.
2. Dressed stone facing and brick masonry backing.
3. Brick facing with rubble stone masonry.
4. Tile facing and brick backing.
5. Brick facing and concrete backing.
6. Stone facing and concrete backing.
uses of GPS are in:
1. Marine navigation
2. Airborne aviation
3. Surveying of lands
4. Sports such as yatching and hiking.
5. Guiding automobile drivers to their destination.
The advantages of using GPS are
1. Can be used in day as well as in nights.
2. Intervisibility of station points on land not required.
3. Time required is much less.
4. Man power required is less.
5. High accuracy is achieved. GPS provides accuracies within a centimeter.
scale maps are classified as
(i) large if greater than 1 : 1000
(ii) intermediate if between 1 : 1000 to 1 : 10,000 and
(iii) small if more than 1 : 10,000.
Most commonly used projections are
(i) Cylindrical projection
(ii) Azimuthal projection, and
(iii) Conic projections.
advantage of digital mapping:
1. Map making is quick.
2. Scales of map can be easily changed and viewed.
3. Maps can be made as per users need by clubbing only required theme of data.
4. Updating the existing map with latest information is neat and easy.
5. Creating maps like 3-Dimension type is easy.
advantages of digital planimeters are
1. Choice of metric or English unit is available.
2. No need for calibration each time.
3. Digital display which is easy to read.
4. Automatic averaging, if used repeatedly to get more accurate results. (Hold buttons is to
be pressed after each reading is taken).
5. Zero setting by push button.
6. Higher accuracy.
7. Downloading the area measured to computers for further processing.
types of bench marks are commonly used :
(i) GTS benchmarks
(ii) Permanent benchmarks
(iii) Arbitrary benchmarks
(iv) Temporary benchmark
types of levelling:
1. Simple levelling
2. Differential levelling
3. Fly levelling
4. Profile levelling
5. Cross sectioning, and
6. Reciprocal levelling
GIS applications are
1. Layout of residential areas
2. Location of market, industrial, cultural centres and other utilities.
3. Roads
4. Rail routes
5. Land use of different crops
6. Drainage systems
7. Streams and river basins
8. Lakes
9. Dams and canals
10. Risk assessment
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